CHAPTER 3
The seventh rule for discernment of good inspirations concerns when the soul becomes more humble from the spiritual delight
The third rule for discernment is: An inspiration is holy if the soul is humbled from the spiritual pleasure. The ancient enemy,
proud from the treasures of wisdom given to him by nature, was excluded by the authority of God from divine sweetness; now he attempts to exclude others from sweetness, offering instead pride, by which, whoever consents to his false persuasions, becomes unworthy of the sweetness of God. In this way he attempts, through vain glory, to exclude from the treasures of the sweetness of Christ the disciples of humility and followers of truth, as they begin to acquire virtues. In Luke is written: the disciples returned with joy, saying, ‘Lord, in your name even the demons submit to us’ [10:17-18]. But the master of humility, trying to introduce them through his grace to the sweetness of wisdom by works of virtue and other spiritual gifts, immediately put before them his teaching on humility: He said to them, ‘I watched Satan fall from heaven like a flash of lightning’. As if he were to say: If Satan, created in such nobility of nature, fell suddenly through vain glory and was excluded from divine sweetness, how will you who are by nature weaker in virtue, virtue which comes not from yourself but from grace, be able to rise to the glory of heaven? Therefore, just as pride closed the door of divine sweetness and heavenly consolation on the angel, so true humility for an earth bound human opens the door of heavenly consolations.[1]
So in Revelation the Lord says to the humble soul: Look, I have set before you an open door, which no one is able to shut. I know that you have but little power, and yet you have kept [3:8] my faith. In these sacred words three things are shown in order, namely, factors leading to true spiritual consolation, the spiritual gifts of God and the highest sentiments destined for the humble: firstly, the gift of consolations; secondly, the value of consolations; thirdly, the object of consolations.
§ The first factor is the gift of consolations, for the text says: Look, that is, to excite to the discernment of spiritual consolation; I have set, that is, I will give; for now the Lord has given of himself, and so shows that the grace of discretion and consolation is more evident; before you an open door, namely, to have the truth of an enlightened discernment as to which are divine and true consolations and which are illusions from the devil. Moreover, an open door is given to the humble, because the entry to tasting divine sweetness is given through the grace of contemplation. In Revelation, this door was opened for the contemplative John; so there is added: there in heaven a door stood open [4:1], because to a person in whom is the grace of humility, the entry to the highest sentiments and secrets of God are most kindly given. Which no one is able to shut by any false illusions and deceptions, namely, unless a person closes it through pride.
There are many who
with genuine faith long for and seek revelations, visions or sentiments which are above nature and outside the common course of those who love and fear God; nor do they understand it is almost impossible to long for and desire such things without deep pride, a basis of presumption and a temptation to vain curiosity about the secrets of God. Nor can it be without fragility and weakness in faith. Such are rightly allowed to succumb to dangerous and false illusions and deceptions of the devil and to most false sentiments. For the most part, this is how, in these modern times, the devil sows spiritual temptations, and implants them in the heart of those who are in truth the messengers of Antichrist.[2]
Such shut the door on themselves so as not to understand how they have been deceived and mocked by the devil; and they take steps so that they cannot reach the desired gifts.
§ The second factor is the value of consolations. The more a person is in their own eyes, so much the less is the person in the sight of God; on the other hand, the more a person thinks poorly of oneself, by that much more does the person grow in grace; and to such a soul Christ says:
Because you have but little power [virtue]. A little virtue with honour is called humility: because it makes one think less of oneself; and because it makes one desire small things and does not display an affectation of personal glory.[3]
Also because it does not try to resist the gifts of God. There is a triple humility:
Ø The first is humility in regard to one’s own thinking, contrary to what the Apostle, in Colossians, said of a certain proud person: puffed up without cause by a human way of thinking [2:18].
Ø The second is
humility of the feelings in affection, by which a person is not led to think highly of oneself, according to the precept of the Apostle who says: do not be haughty, but associate with the lowly [Rom 12:16].
Ø The third is humility in our attitude in work, because there is written: God opposes the proud, but gives grace to the humble [Jas 4:6].
The door of revelation, the entry to great gifts and consolations, is opened by God to those who have this triple humility.
These do not come from any human skill, desire or effort, but they come only from the supreme goodness and mercy of God existing in the soul not only in this triple humility but also in a deep fear of God and supreme reverence, great love and fervour of faith. There are, however, many who plan and try to humiliate themselves, to have fear and reverence for God precisely so that they can have supernatural consolations, revelations, visions and sentiments. And these are taken in by the same deceptions since they have the same source, foundation and purpose as the aforementioned desire.[4]
So it is entirely right that they should incur the same sentence and abandonment by God as the aforementioned.
Many are seduced, convinced that what they thought or what the spirit of error suggested to them, came from the Holy Spirit. So we are almost sickened by prophecies; as, for example on the coming of Antichrist, signs of imminent judgment, the persecution and reform of the Church, and so on; even serious and devout people have accepted more than they should, drawing various interpretations from the writings of Joachim,[5] and other prophets; even if these were true and authentic, there are many other things which the servants of God can find, with which to be occupied gainfully. The Lord Jesus Christ reprimanded in many ways those discerning the times with curiosity: It is not for you to know the times or periods that the Father has set by his own, not by our, authority [Acts 1:7].[6]
§ The third factor is the object of consolations. For humility to be pleasing to God, two things, above all, are necessary.
Ø Firstly, that it be in line with the words of Christ and that one is not busy in good works while following one’s own opinion; and so John adds: you have kept my word [Rev 3:8]. For
the word of God is to be observed diligently, so that with due concentration of the mind and careful actions, the teaching of Christ is fulfilled, which consists above all in this that the glory of God is needed in every good.
Ø Secondly, that one be diligent, busy, practised and persevere to the end for the glory of God; and he adds on this: and have not denied my name. To deny the name of Christ is to abandon the humility of Christ through self glory and pleasure. So, there is written: The beginning of human pride is to abandon the Lord [Sir 10:12]. Whoever does not refer the gifts of grace to God, but rather extols oneself because of them is beginning to separate the mind from God through pride; this is to attribute the gifts to oneself, and, complacent in the gifts, love oneself, not God. This is a complete negation of God, of which is written: If I have looked at the sun when it shone, or the moon moving in splendour, and my heart has been secretly enticed, and my mouth has kissed my hand; this also would be an iniquity to be punished by the judges, for I should have been false to God above [Job 31:26-28]. One sees the sun shining and the moon moving in splendour when one has received spiritual or temporal graces, or thinks one has received them. One who is complacent in this kisses one’s own hand, not the hand of God, judging that all these gifts come from oneself and not from God. This is an iniquity, not only of a personal, proud regard and glorifying of oneself, but of the utmost ingratitude towards God; it is rightly called a denial of God since gifts are to be accepted from the bountiful hand of God, and immediately the hand of God is cut off by the sword of ingratitude.[7]
The ancient enemy in many ways effects this denial of God in all in whom there is spiritual presumption and a secret ambition for fame, advancement and dignity. Some, deceived in some strange way, drink willingly from the cup of Babylon [Jer 51:7], with ease claiming in themselves, or from others, visions and revelations which praise them and promote them to high ranks, as, for example, the papacy or other dignities. I have known many who were deceived about the papacy. Although some of them claim to have received this in wonderful visions, I, however, have always judged it to be evident that they are deceived and suffering illusions. In our day unhappy Christianity can see, in the unhappy Felix, how great is this danger. This Felix, deceived by such a vision, as is clear from abundant evidence, brought forth in the Church the horrible and scandalous monster of an antipope; this is a terrible iniquity and a denial of God most high.[8]
But you who, unless I am mistaken, want to have a spirit of discernment, carefully
beware not in any way to keep in your soul during prayer and contemplation any consolation, be it great and exalted, but which confirms a proud presumption or opinion of yourself, leading you to ambition for your own glory and honour, not only in the present life but also in the future; such a consolation serves mainly one’s own refreshment and satisfaction. Hold, without doubting, that the soul grasping such consolation falls into a multitude of dangerous errors and vices. For, by a just decision, God allows power to the devil, who by many paths and various arguments, increases this consolation and entrenches by consolation these most dangerous sentiments and other illusions, by which the soul so affected believes and thinks of them as true revelations. Ah, Lord God, how many today are deceived by these errors! The majority of the disciples and messengers of Antichrist, whom I do not call devoted but mad, proceed in this way. So you, dear brother reading this, be careful to allow, in your prayer and contemplation, only such consolation which flows from a true knowledge of yourself, perfect awareness of your nothingness and imperfection, and which flows and comes from your deep submission through deep reverence to the greatness and sublimity of God, and also from a deep desire for God’s glory, not your own; the consolation spoken of earlier is to be based and held firmly, principally in what has just been said or on equivalent bases.[9]
Nor do I think it should be passed over that many are so horribly seduced and deceived, as to think that Christ or the blessed Virgin has appeared to them in a vision; and to have been embraced by them not only with kisses and caresses, but even with more indecent gestures and actions. They believe that just as their inner spirit is filled with consolation and delight, so also their outer body with a corresponding sense of pleasure is to be embraced in a way it can feel. This is not only seductive and most false, but also a most serious kind of blasphemy. The visitation of the Holy Spirit, who is opposed to all vices which are to be despised and reprimanded, is also opposed with all power to carnal pleasure; where the spirit of cleanliness by its light shines in a soul, of necessity all wrong movements of the will and dark clouds are made to disappear in the presence of the divine light. But when such people experience a spiritual sweetness, they are accustomed also all the time to be defiled by an unwanted movement of carnal and wrong delight. I do not know how I should judge them, unless I say I would prefer them to lack flowers than I would wish them to gather flowers from what is sordid. And while I dare not condemn them, who are sometimes in such spiritual affections stained involuntarily by fluid from the body, at the same time I cannot excuse any who voluntarily delight in such a situation, no matter how good their intention may seem to be.[10]
Four deceptions in spiritual matters. Many are deceived dangerously both in spiritual delights and in spiritual sentiments. Such errors can be reduced to four kinds: firstly, diabolical deception; secondly, artificial transformation; thirdly, natural passion; fourthly, inadequate skill. Such deceptions are communicated from one person to another, because they deceive not only the people who experience the deceptions, but also any who see them and put their trust in them.
§ The first kind of deception is diabolical deception. The forms of this are legion, because the ancient serpent insinuates itself in wonderful and innumerable ways to deceive them, of which sufficient has been said in the previous sermon, Section 1, Chapter 4;[11] also something will be said in the present chapter, and, should God so allow, we will speak of it in a Tractatus septem tentationum.[12]
§ The second kind of deception is artificial transformation. Many do violence to themselves to shed tears and be fervent, through certain exterior actions they strive for supernatural sentiments, and put pressure on themselves with this in view. Gradually, then, nature becomes accustomed to these; in such, with the help of the devil, artificial, not genuine, transformations occur. So something great happens, not from grace but from nature. Such people, and all who believe them, are deceived. They do not understand
that grace does not use violence to produce such excitements, tears, and so on, unless the grace itself forces one. When the Lord wishes to visit a soul with the gift of his grace, no one can hide from his face, but must of necessity obey. Some people are accustomed, as far as they are able, to deny, hold back, and hide such excitements, fervour, and other singular gifts from the sight of others, lest anyone see them,[13]
and it shall not be imputed as folly in him [Ps 21:3].[14]
Consolations and devotions, which ordinarily come secretly to beginners in devout and humble prayer, are not to be rejected since they are quite useful to imperfect and perfect souls. However, a soul may be so perfect as to wish to be deprived of all spiritual consolations,[15]
and lawfully seek this so as to be nailed with Christ to the cross.
§ The third kind of deception is natural passion. There are natural sufferings or sicknesses undetected by even the most skilful doctors. Usually these sufferings become evident through signs and actions according to the virtues or vices in which they are found. For example, some who do not understand well what are spiritual works, sometimes believe they are works of the Spirit of God, sometimes works of the spirit of the devil, depending on whether the person in whom they are found is inclined now to good and now to evil; yet they are natural, even though an evil spirit can be mixed up in them in many ways.
If spiritual remedies have no effect on such delights and temptations, they must be put away, thrown into oblivion, neglected, or fled; they are not to be confessed, except perhaps in a general way, nor worried over in any way; they are to be thought of as passions, fragility, or weakness common to the conditions of this life.[16]
§ The fourth kind of deception is inadequate skill. A soul which is not directed in its actions by reason, rarely adapts itself perfectly to a perfection in virtue, because it neither avoids vices prudently nor imitates virtues with prudence. Anyone who does not prudently avoid vices and practise virtues with due zeal, cannot reach the summit of divine gifts. Therefore, if some sentiments and spiritual delights appear in such people, they are in no way to be believed, because it has to be presumed that hidden in them is something of the aforementioned or other deceptions or errors.
CHAPTER 4
The eighth rule of good inspirations is to see if the soul is more fully illuminated in faith and morals from the spiritual delights
A fourth rule of discernment can be added, namely: An inspiration is to be heeded when a soul grows clearer and firmer in faith and morals when spiritual delight occurs. To make this rule clearer it is necessary to weigh three things: firstly, what is spiritual light; secondly, what is light for faith; and thirdly, what is light for morals?
§ Firstly, we will ponder what is spiritual light. This becomes clearer if we first understand the nature of bodily light. Four things are needed for human sight:
Firstly, an eye suitable for seeing; secondly, an object which is visible; thirdly, light between the eye and the object; fourthly, a suitable medium between the eye and the object. When each of these is perfect in its proportion, sight will be perfect; when they are more perfect, sight will be more perfect.[17]
If bodily sight needs these many things to be able to see, how much more will spiritual sight need and find it necessary to have other and more perfect conditions!
These can be further distinguished by four things which are necessary: firstly, a mind completely purified; secondly, a clearly defined object; thirdly, light coming from above; and fourthly, the love of God communicated to the soul.
Ø Firstly, a mind completely purified is needed, a mind, namely, which among all the mundane distractions of the world can look on God with simple attention, and so have clear vision: Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God [Mt 5:8].
Ø Secondly, a clearly defined object, that is an unwillingness to offend the Creator, or a desire to do the will of God; such a person prays to the Lord with the Prophet, and says: Teach me to do your will, for you are my God [Ps 143:10].
Ø Thirdly, a light coming from above, according to the Prophet: You enlighten wonderfully from the everlasting hills [Ps 75:5].[18]
Ø Fourthly, the love of God communicated to the soul: God is love, and those who abide in love abide in God, and God abides in them [1 Jn 4:16]. The stronger and more perfect these four conditions are in the soul, so much stronger is the light in the mind, and vice versa.
§ Secondly, we will ponder what is the light of faith. The light of faith, necessary for salvation, is the light contained in the Apostle’s Creed. This light covers a threefold scripture which each adult Christian is bound to believe implicitly or explicitly, according to the state and circumstances of each person.
Ø The first scripture is the whole New Testament; so in the Creed is written: ‘according to the scriptures’, which means: I believe in the incarnation, birth, passion, resurrection and other things about the Lord Jesus as they are written in the New Testament at the dictation of the Holy Spirit.
Ø The second scripture is the Old Testament which is mentioned in the Creed in the words: ‘who has spoken through the prophets’. All who wrote in the Old Testament were prophets as is clear in Moses, Job, the Psalmist, Solomon, Isaiah, Jeremiah and the other authors.
Ø The third scripture to be believed is whatever is decided by the holy Roman Church in its Decrees, Decretals, and in the Extravagantes.[19] These are contained in the Creed in the words: ‘and one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church’. This includes also any writings of the holy doctors approved by the Church. All this is treated in detail and more fully in the Lenten sermon De christiana religione, sermon 3, article 3.[20]
§ Thirdly, we will ponder what is the light of morals. It is the light of the four moral virtues that we are bound to observe both by the law of nature as well as the law of the Old and New Testaments, for, according to Alexander of Hales[21] and other doctors,[22] moral questions are not lacking in the Old Testament.
From these three lights the meaning of the rule under discussion becomes clear. Every spiritual delight and so
every lofty sentiment, every vision, revelation, and appearance of whatever kind, which leads your heart in feeling or thinking against any article of faith or against right behaviour, especially against honesty and humility, you are to flee and abhor; because without a doubt they come partly from the devil, they do not increase but lessen light, and blind in those areas which concern the faith and sound morals.[23]
Ah, Lord God, how many simple people are deceived under the mantle of a spirit! You who want to walk on the right road, be prudent and
beware of anyone who, even though they live an excellent life, or are deeply devout, or clear in mind, or have any other quality, but you know for sure, or think it probable, that their advice or ways of acting are not in accord with true discernment, with the life of Christ and the saints, as approved by the Sacred Scriptures and preached and stated by the holy doctors. Nor should you fear to make little of, or to annoy, or to contradict their actions and advice, because you will not offend through pride or presumption as long as you act from a zeal for truth, uprightness and a love of the true way.
Rather you would sin, were you not to resist these with all your energy, because dist. 8, in the canon Facientis,[24] says: ‘One will not be without scruple of having given a hidden approval when one fails to oppose a clear error’. In fact, such are to be accused and denounced to the bishops and inquisitors, because 2 Kings says: If we are silent and wait until the morning light, and adds, we will be found guilty [7:9].
To be completely avoided and abhorred are
familiarity and conversations with such deceivers, who disseminate and spread abroad these errors; this is true also of those who support and praise such people. Their words are not to be heeded nor their actions watched, because they will show you in their many actions and words an excellent imitation of perfection. If you accept these as divine and good, you will fall into the abyss of their errors and their vain and dishonest actions. Nor is any value to be set on their visions, sentiments or raptures; in fact, if they say or turn to anything against faith or Sacred Scriptures, or against the good morals or the life and well proven words of the Saints, you are to abhor their visions as false delusions and their sentiments as stupid ravings, and their raptures as a madness of fools.
However, if they lead one to what is in accord with faith, Sacred Scripture and sound morals, do not despise this, otherwise you may be despising what is coming from God. I am not saying to put complete confidence in them; for in spiritual deceptions, error can put on in a most secret way the appearance of truth, and malice the appearance of goodness, so that the devil may be able to spread his poison more easily and without suspicion. Therefore, do not value highly visions, sentiments, raptures and such similar things which have the appearance of good and truth, unless they come from certain people of whom, by reason of their holiness, humility, firmness and discretion tested by long experience, it is certain and clear they may not be in any way deceived by the lies and illusions of the devil. Although it is a work of piety to believe in the visions and sentiments of such people, however, it is safer not to believe in these visions for themselves, but only when they are in agreement with the Catholic faith, Sacred Scripture, sound morals, and with the life and words of the saints approved by the Roman Church, and seen by the mind to be based on what has been said here.[25]
In the days of blessed Bernard[26] and of others both before and after him, in fact even today, for when I was a child, I who am now fifty,[27] there spread a delusion of many revelations and visions, asserting that Antichrist was already born. These revelations seemed to be true because of the apparent life and fame of those preaching and writing such things. However, as I have often preached, experience showed that they were lies of the devil. Perhaps, God knows, many good things came to some from such credulity. Nevertheless, the cunning of the ancient serpent gained a significant result, while working to spread in a most malicious way this illusion. Because as often as this error was spread among Christians, when the true Antichrist does appear, the people will not believe it, and, consequently, not be afraid or cautious. Among the intelligent and enlightened this is a serious damage and significant danger.
SECTION 3
The four last rules of discernment of inspirations which involve effort and delight
Thirdly, there are certain holy inspirations which torment and delight. Four rules are now given so that they may be accurately discerned.
CHAPTER 1
The ninth rule for the discernment of inspirations. How, without giving scandal to enlightened souls, inspirations are to be heeded. A dispute concerning a triple scandal
The first rule is this: ‘An inspiration is acceptable if the pleasure or pain gives no scandal to a person enlightened by God’.[28] To understand this rule it is necessary to say something about scandal. So, firstly, what is scandal? According to a Gloss[29] on Matthew: Woe to the world because of stumbling blocks! [18:7], a text able to be used for a writing on scandal: ‘Scandal is a word or action lacking in correctness, proving to be an occasion of ruin to others’. Some others[30] describe it as: Scandal is a word, action or sign by which someone is drawn to consent to mortal sin. But according to Alexander of Hales, in II, quaest. 56,[31] the first definition is sufficient, because word and action in the first definition are to be taken in a broad sense including every gesture and sign. All could be included under the word action or even under word, because one who gestures or makes a sign is speaking in some way. On the matter of scandal, we will ponder now a triple scandal: firstly, necessary; secondly, active; thirdly, passive.
§ What is necessary scandal? Firstly, I say there is a necessary scandal. The Lord said: Occasions for stumbling are bound to come [Mt 18:7]; and again: Occasions for stumbling are bound to come [Lk 17:1]. To understand these words of Christ correctly, according to Alexander of Hales,[32] one must distinguish a triple necessity in scandal: firstly, inevitability; secondly, evil; thirdly, usefulness.
Ø Firstly, there is a necessity of inevitability, in which the free will has no role; in this scandals do not necessarily result. This can be proved in three ways: firstly, because the scandal can be inculpable; secondly, because it may not be subject to choice; thirdly, because it may not be subject to change.
q Firstly, the scandal may be inculpable because necessity removes culpability. Chrysostom[33]:
No one blames another who out of necessity is what he is, but rather is indulgent, for example, to another born blind. Similarly, if scandals come of necessity, no one is to be blamed; but the one causing scandal is blameworthy, because it is not from necessity but from a decision
of free will that scandals arise.
q Secondly, because a scandal may not be subject to choice, that is, it does not come from our decision; this is false. Chrysostom[34] says:
If we do not accuse certain things, we bear witness to nature, that is, everything evident in the things we reproach, and we show that this
fault is due to a personal decision.
q Thirdly, because scandal is not subject to change. For
things which are natural are not easily changed; but these things are easily changed. One who despised a poor person, no longer does so, and vice versa. Therefore, scandal does not come from nature,
nor is it from God. Were this not so the Lord would not have said: Woe to the one by whom the stumbling block comes! [Mt 18:7]. This text can be used as an argument.
Ø Secondly, there is the necessity of evil, namely, arising from a disposition of fallen nature or a bad habit, according to the condition of people who do not keep themselves from sin. This makes it possible to understand the text: Occasions for stumbling are bound to come. This applies to those who fall sick from not keeping to a necessary diet; but there is no necessity for one to fall sick who keeps a diet and is careful. Chrysostom[35] says of this: ‘Nothing is as harmful as dangerous talk’. And again[36]: ‘If you ask from where do evils come, I reply, from lingering with the spiteful and from neglecting virtue’.
Ø Thirdly, there is a necessity of usefulness. A necessity is useful when God selects from it something suitable for God’s purpose or for good. The Apostle speaks in this sense when he says: It is necessary that there be factions among you, for only so will it become clear who among you are genuine [1 Cor 11:19]. So it is necessary for scandals to arise, for from them God selects good. Chrysostom[37] says:
Scandals buttress stability, they do not produce it; that is why, if we have been watchful, we will gain no little profit from them. If, however, we sleep while enemies are active and so many temptations imminent, do we not deserve to be blamed for living in idleness?
The words of the Lord quoted above from Matthew and Luke, can now be understood clearly, for they are not speaking of necessity in its first form, but of necessity in the second and third categories. If reference were to the first type of necessity, the sense would be contrary to what Chrysostom[38] says: If necessity were such, all fault would be taken away.
§ What is active scandal? The second kind is active scandal. This follows from what has been said above. Bernard[39] says that one can sin in three ways, namely, ‘from weakness, from ignorance, and from a certain malice’. In the first two, care must be taken not to do anything which might be a cause or ground for scandal to another, that is, when the scandal might come from weakness or ignorance. This does not apply since the scandal comes from a certain malice. The Lord said to his disciples about the Pharisees who were scandalized from malice: Let them alone; they are blind guides of the blind [Mt 15:14]. But to the ones demanding a tax he said to Peter:
However, so that we do not give offense to them, go to the sea and cast a hook; take the first fish that comes up; and when you open its mouth, you will find a coin; take that and give it to them for you and me [Mt 17:27].
This is treated in XI, quaest. 3, Inter verba.[40] So Bernard[41] says: ‘The Pharisees are scandalized from malice, but the others from ignorance, because they do not know the truth; but the Pharisees because they hate’. Sometimes scandal is taken from sound doctrine, as stated in the canon, Inter verba.[42] According to Thomas, IIa, IIae, quaest. 43,[43] when scandal arises from ignorance or weakness, scandal of the immature, spiritual works should be hidden or deferred, until there is no threat of danger, or that such scandal might stop once the reasons are given. If, however, scandal continues after explaining the reasons, it becomes clear that those taking scandal are acting not from ignorance but from malice; spiritual works should not be laid aside because of such scandal. Jerome[44] gives a rule in this matter and it is: Everything which can be done or left undone, except for the triple truth, should be cancelled for fear or scandal. If a truth is under threat, a good work is not to be cancelled, such as neglecting the truth of life, the truth of justice and the truth of doctrine. According to Alexander of Hales, as above[45]:
For example, if my parents are scandalized unless, after religious profession, I return to the world, I must not return because of the danger to a truth of life. Similarly, if an audience is scandalized because I preach the faith of Christ or the ten commandments I am not to stop because a truth of doctrine is at stake. Also, if a guilty person is scandalized when I give a just sentence, I am not to stop because a truth of justice is at stake. These three truths are distinguished according to three strengths of the soul. The truth of life is concerned with good which is desirable; the truth of justice restrains an angry person from evil; the truth of doctrine enables a reasonable person to discern good and flee evil.
Ø The truth of life. The first truth is the truth of life which concerns everyone. The truth of life and behaviour corresponds to the rules for right living, that is, to the law of God including all the precepts, prohibitions and counsels, or, in other words, whatever is necessary for salvation. These can never be neglected because of scandal to another. The counsels and works of supererogation of Gospel perfection are not simply to be omitted but perhaps for a particular individual they could be deferred for a while to avoid giving scandal. According to Thomas, as above,[46]
fulfilling the counsels, giving alms and such works of mercy, when they are not necessary for salvation, should not be omitted simply because of scandal; but they are to be hidden for a while or put off on account of scandal to the immature,
]
until after proper explanation, the scandal ceases. But there should be no delay when the keeping of the counsels and doing works of mercy are necessary for salvation, for example in all who must meet the needs of others, as in temporal needs such as feeding the hungry, or in spiritual needs as teaching the ignorant. This applies whether these have to be done as a result of one’s office as for prelates, or because it is necessary to help a needy person. The same way of acting is to be adopted for these situations as when there is a necessity for salvation.
According to Thomas, as above[47]:
One must distinguish between temporal goods. Some goods are given to us to be preserved just as the goods of the Church are given to prelates and public goods to government rulers. To conserve these and their store room is incumbent as a duty of necessity on all to whom they are committed. Therefore, they are not to be neglected because of scandal, anymore than things necessary for salvation.
So blessed Thomas of Canterbury demanded that the goods of the Church be handed back, thereby scandalizing the king. But if temporal goods are
under our control to give away, then we can give them when we have them, or not give them when others hold them, but when there is question of scandal we can sometimes give them, sometimes not give them. But if scandal is caused by this either from ignorance or the weakness of others, called scandal of the weak, then, either the good actions are to stopped, or the scandal avoided by some other way, for example by an admonition. But if the scandal arises from malice, called pharisaical scandal, then the good actions are not to be stopped for the sake of those who cry scandal. This would be against the common good, for it would allow evil persons to plunder, and would harm the plunderers who would remain in sin by taking other’s goods.
Alexander of Hales treats of this admirably and at length, in II, quaest. 56,[48] which I have omitted for the sake of brevity.
The truth of life is to be omitted on account of scandal. The avoidance of any fault concerns the truth of life; but a person ought to commit venial sin to avoid giving scandal to a neighbour, because a person has to be more careful of a neighbour’s possible eternal damnation due to mortal sin coming from a scandal, than of one’s own condemnation for a limited time because of venial sin. And so the truth of life is to be omitted on account of scandal.
On this question Thomas, as above,[49] says a person is not obliged to commit venial sin to prevent another committing mortal sin; nor is one acting well in committing it, because in avoiding sin we are not acting principally from fear of our own damnation. This would be to avoid sin for fear of punishment; but we act in this way so as not to offend God, to whom venial sin is offensive, although not as seriously as mortal sin. No one should offend God in a little thing to prevent another giving offence to God in a serious way, because one ought without any limit love God more than a neighbour. No one, therefore, ought to commit venial sin to avoid scandal, so long as the action done for this reason remains a venial sin, such as an official lie. It can happen that an action for one reason or another is not venial sin, which it would otherwise be: as to make jokes which may not be unprofitable words since they would not lack a certain good usefulness; and so on.
Ø The truth of justice. The second truth is the truth of justice, which is of concern for those with authority, judges and prelates. There are two parts to justice, especially for prelates, namely, severity in punishing the guilty and liberality in supporting the poor, according to Alexander of Hales, as above.[50] These people are to give true and just judgments and never give a false judgment on the grounds of scandal. Nor should justice be deferred because of passive scandal to another, unless the justice can be dispensed with or modified in other ways, either completely or for a time.
Here it can be asked whether the truth of justice can be put off sometimes on account of scandal in carrying out a severe judgment such as in excommunicating a delinquent. According to Alexander of Hales, as above,[51] it must be said:
The work of justice is of two kinds, namely, distributive and punitive justice.
q Firstly, the work of distributive justice is to give to each person what belongs to him or her, so that each has what is proven to be theirs. This judgment, since it an act of the will, according to Gregory,[52] is never to be put off because of scandal.
q Secondly, the work of punitive justice pertains to statutory punishments. This can be delayed on account of danger which could occur especially in judging a ruler or many people. The reason for this is the danger of schism, according to Contra episolam Parmeniani,[53] applied in a way opposite to what is said there. In this work is written: ‘when the crime of someone is known, and is so offensive to all that hardly anyone would defend it and so be the cause of schism, the severity of the discipline is not to be put off’. The opposite meaning is that if there is danger of schism the severity of the discipline is to be delayed. However, the severity of justice is not to be put off because of this, for the judge wants to give to each what is theirs in so far as it can be done, but the justice is delayed to avoid a greater scandal. In this case more attention is to be given to the admonitions for discretion.
Thomas, as above,[54]
The inflicting of punishments, in so far as it is based on justice, so much the more does it discourage crimes. But if it is evident that more and worse crimes will follow, then the imposing of punishments will not be based on justice.
In this situation, according to Augustine,[55] punishments are to be stopped.
Alexander of Hales[56] makes a further distinction, saying:
the severity of justice or discipline is not to be neglected when some, with a certain justification, defend their sins in the style of heretics. Isidore[57] speaks in this way: ‘There are some who do not amend their lives from the vice of evil doing and moreover, while admitting to the carnal crime, defend themselves on the basis of a certain superstitious boldness, and they are not to receive any honour or be admitted to the grace of communion’. When they do not defend their sin, yet there is fear of a schism or other evil, the punishment can and should be deferred when many sin. Augustine, To Boniface[58]: ‘Experiments are conducted to discover many medicines for the many sicknesses. In such cases, when there is danger not of the separation of this or that person, but the downfall of many is involved, any severity is to be curtailed, so that sincere charity may serve to heal the faults of the many’.
There is a notable example of this in dist. 4, can. Denique;[59] and this is treated well in the Lenten sermon, De evangelio aeterno, sermon 38, art. 3.[60]
Ø The truth of doctrine. The third truth is the truth of doctrine which concerns teachers and preachers. This truth is not be neglected where there is danger of common error unless a notable advancement in the faithful is hoped for from it, or where in the faithful a notable damage to health is feared unless the truth be publicly taught. Truth, I say, is not to be neglected on account of the scandal of some, but it is a different matter, in accord with the place and time, to be silent or remain hidden. Thomas, as above,[61] says:
Two things are to be considered regarding doctrine, namely, the truth which is taught, and the actual teaching. The first of these is necessary for health so that a person is not to teach anything contrary to truth, which must be taught according to the suitability of the time and the diversity of persons; the one who has the office of teaching has to do this. Therefore, a doctor or preacher is not to gloss over truth and teach error on account of any scandal which it is feared may result. The actual teaching is listed as spiritual almsgiving.
The same thing is to be said of it as was said above by Thomas[62] of the truth of life. Thomas[63] also says of fraternal correction that
fraternal correction is listed among spiritual goods in so far as correction can be given. It is not to be given if the correction of a brother would scandalize him; therefore, if correction is omitted to avoid scandal, the spiritual good is not neglected.
· What is passive scandal? Thirdly, there is passive scandal, and according to Thomas, as above[64]:
Passive scandal implies a certain movement away from good in the soul of the person scandalized. However, no one is moved while clinging firmly to an immovable object; the perfect cling only to God, who is unchanging goodness. For, even though they are united to their prelates they are not united in them except in so far as they are in Christ, according to the Apostle: Wherefore I beseech you, be followers of me, as I also am of Christ [1 Cor 4:16].[65] Even though they see others speaking and acting in a disordered manner, they, however, do not abandon the correct way, in accord with the saying of the Prophet: Those who trust in the Lord are like Mount Zion, which cannot be moved, but abides forever [Ps 125:1]. In all who cling perfectly to God through love, there is found no scandal; so the Prophet says: Great peace have those who love your law; nothing can make them stumble [Ps 119:165].
Therefore, on the text: If any of you put a stumbling block before one of these little ones who believe in me [Mt 18:6], etc, Jerome[66] says: ‘Note, whoever is scandalized is a little one; the mature do not take scandal’.
But note a contrary opinion, namely, that passive scandal can also happen even to the perfect. Christ was the highest perfection, yet he said to Peter: You are a stumbling block to me [Mt 18:6]. How much more easily can other perfect people suffer scandal? In reply to this it can be said that scandal or stumbling block is used in a broad sense of any obstacle. Hence, because Peter tried to prevent the suggestion of the passion, the Lord said to him: You are a stumbling block to me, that is a hindrance or obstacle. Even though the perfect sometimes fall into some venial sin from the weakness of the flesh, they do not take scandal from the words and actions of others, according to the true meaning of scandal; they do not take them as occasions of sin. However they can experience something akin to scandal, according to the word of the Prophet: But as for me, my feet had almost slipped [Ps 73:2], that is, my inner steps. The inner steps are the mind and affections which almost slipped from their proper place which is God.[67] He says this referring to the first steps which are under our control.
Therefore, Ecclesiastes warns: If the anger of the ruler, that is the devil, rises against you, namely, in your first steps, do not leave, by taking scandal, your place, which is God [10:4]. Add to this: my feet had almost slipped. The steps of the mind are thoughts and the steps of the affections are desires;
As if to say: Prompted by active scandal presented to me, my feet had almost slipped into sin from passive scandal. But the just person, although tempted by those who cause scandal, does not consent to the scandal. Only sinners, whether it be from weakness, ignorance or malice, are scandalized, as explained above.
These words on scandal have turned out to be longer than I planned; but because such matter is useful for teaching, and because the rule under discussion becomes clearer from what has been said, it does not bother me to write even more. So we will return to the rule which says that inspiration is acceptable if the delight or effort is without scandal to another who is enlightened by God. This is to be understood of both spiritual and sensual delight or effort, since not a few deceptions are found in both, and are recognized by few. All originate in one’s own will, spiritual pride and self love, abetted by the clever working and malice of the devil. They are easily recognized by all illuminated by divine light; therefore what they say of such delights or efforts is to be believed, and their judgments respected, even though there is always a risk of deception. This is an occasion of giving scandal to a neighbour who is illumined by God, even though a truly just person does not take scandal from it.
Even though, according to the rule, we must watch with the greatest care lest we give occasion of scandal to souls enlightened by God, no less must we be careful not to scandalize the weak or ignorant, as is clear from what has been said, mindful of the words of the Apostle who says: Therefore, if food is a cause of their falling, I will never eat meat, so that I may not cause one of them to fall [1 Cor 8:13]. Christ’s love for sinners for whom he died demands this.
The ignorant and those not skilled in the way of the spirit, and in general all seculars, are often edified by penances and whatever torments and afflicts, for example, extreme penance, fasts and such things even when done without proper discernment. On the other hand, they are scandalized by some things which delight, even if they are perhaps at times not venial sin. This is supported by what the Apostle says: Those who are unspiritual do not receive, that is, do not fully grasp because they do not understand, the gifts of God’s Spirit, for they are foolishness to them [1 Cor 2:14-15], as far as the affections are concerned, Sirach says: Godliness is an abomination to a sinner [1:25], who is unable to savour spiritual gifts in the mind; such gifts have to be examined and tested spiritually. Proverbs says: A fool takes no pleasure in understanding, but only what is spoken by a person expressing personal opinion [18:2]. But the spiritual person judges everything, that is, understands and discerns everything. According to Augustine,[68] this does not apply to everything known by God, but whatever is sufficient for life and justice. A person is called spiritual who, guided by the Spirit of God, lives and understands according to this Spirit. ‘They are themselves subject to no one else’s’, namely, a carnal person’s ‘scrutiny’, that is, they understand if they judge well or badly.
CHAPTER 2
The tenth rule of discernment concerns when spiritual delight occurs in any action
The second rule of discernment is added,[69] namely: inspiration is to be accepted if, having excluded mortal sin, the natural delight with vice is less than the torment of a virtuous suffering. To clarify this rule three things, already spoken of, need to be called to mind.
§ Firstly, it was said in the fifth rule[70] that in natural delight reason is united to sensuality itself, and in it neither reason nor sensuality entirely predominate. At times, however, the bodily senses delight in it a little more than is necessary and reasonable, which is a venial sin. From this is clear what is meant by natural delight with vice, something spoken of in this rule. For example, those who fast frequently, eat with more pleasure than when they are not fasting. This is natural pleasure, perhaps with venial sin.
§ Secondly, in the same fifth rule it was said that in natural delight reason becomes a slave to sensuality, from which comes mortal sin. Therefore, it is stated in this rule, ‘without mortal sin’, that is, natural pleasure is not to slip into sensual delight so that the disordered and sensual appetite does not take over reason. For example, one fasting may slip into such greed as to fall into the sin of gluttony and greed. This can easily happen. Augustine,[71] dist. 41, on the chapter Quisquis, says:
It can happen that, without greed or gluttony, a wise person uses most expensive food, while a stupid person is afire with a flame of gluttony while using most poor food. The wiser person will prefer to eat fish, as did the Lord, than lentils as did Esau, the nephew of Abraham, or barley as do the beasts. Beasts are not more contented than we are simply because they eat poorer food. In all these cases it is not from the nature of the things we use, but from the reason why we use them and desire them, that what we do is approved or disapproved.
On the chapter, Deliciae, Augustine[72] says:
Any delight, received without desire, does no harm; poor foods taken too eagerly prevent the benefits of abstinence. David poured out the water he wrongly desired and Elijah ate meat.
On David see 1 Chron 11:17-19 and for Elijah 1 Kings 17:6.
§ Thirdly, as stated above in the first rule,[73] the hardship in virtuous suffering is a difficult task which is borne in love, such as poverty, vigils, fasting, and like things. So the meaning of this rule is, a person aiming chiefly at acquiring a difficult virtue, such as fasting and love of abstinence, may perhaps, while fasting, eat with more pleasure than while not fasting; even if there be venial sin in this, provided the person does not slip into the mortal sin of gluttony, the person should not stop fasting because of the venial fault which occurs. A work of much virtue is not to be abandoned because of a small fault, since the small fault is consistent with love, according to Scotus, in IV.[74] The Prophet acknowledged this when he said to the Lord: My unformed substance, that is, my imperfection, your eyes beheld, namely, with approval, and in your book, that is in the book of life, all were written [Ps 139:16], namely, such weaknesses. He says in another place: Rain in abundance, that is, the gift of love freely given, you showered abroad, O God, on your heritage, namely, your elect, when it languished, through venial sin, and you have restored your heritage, by your love [Ps 68:9]. Careful attention must be given to assure that this does not become mortal sin. So the Lord says: The worm finds them sweet [Job 24:20], that is, any pleasure in mortal sin turned into remorse and gnawing of conscience; their worm shall not die, their fire shall not be quenched, and they shall be an abhorrence to all flesh [Isa 66:24]. For as stated: Every tree that does not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the fire [Mt 7:19]. A tree not bearing good fruit is an evil will which, in as much as it is evil, does wrong; this has to be cut down from the company of the blessed and must sorrowfully be listed among the damned, and thrown into the fire, namely, of eternal hell. Chrysostom[75] says: There are two punishments, namely, to be cut down and to be thrown into the fire. ‘I know that many fear hell; I, however, can say that the loss of glory would be more bitter than the punishment of hell’.
CHAPTER 3
The eleventh rule of discernment concerns which work is to be done first and which postponed
The third rule of discernment can be added. It is: Other things being equal, a lesser good is to be given up for a greater good, and consequently, a greater good is to be put before a lesser good. There are three goods in the present life: the first is great, the second greater, and the third is greatest. The first is temporal, the second is bodily, and the third is spiritual.
Natural justice demands that a great good be put after a greater, and a greater good after the greatest.
§ Firstly, for example, as is clear from experience, one coin is less than ten coins, ten less than a hundred, and a hundred less than a thousand.
§ Secondly, the same thing applies in bodily concerns: the amputation of a hand or foot is put off if there is danger of a person losing their sight; and an operation on the eye is put off if there is danger of a person dying.
§ Thirdly, the same thing applies in spiritual matters. So the Lord says: If your right eye causes you to sin, tear it out and throw it away [Mt 5:29]. Yo